Hospitality and Tourism for Restaurants- MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Examine about theHospitality and Tourism for Restaurants. Answer: Presentation: Cafés in each edge of the world experience reviews for a few reasons, for example, assessment of menu, sanitation, plans, and so forth. Among all these, the significant review is the quality check and cleanliness review. It is identified with the sanitation of the eatery. It surveys the food quality and just as prosperity and soundness of the workers and clients (Efreshglobal.com. 2016). It is imperative to keep a mind the security and medical problems of the café on yearly premise with the goal that they keep up the quality and cleanliness parts of the food. This report talks about the review agenda report for the well known café Mamak, in Sydney. The review is directed to assess the food quality and wellbeing and security issues of the eatery, and whether Mamak is observing the principles and guidelines of the wellbeing division. Review Outcome: Mamak is a well known eatery in Sydney. It has three branches. It leads a review yearly to check if the sanitation rules and guidelines are trailed by the workers and the board. This is the most significant factor in a cafés activity. Except if the food quality, security and cleanliness factors are kept up appropriately and according to standard, the wellbeing division would close down the business. The review check list (remembered for the Appendix) comprises of principally food and cleanliness parts of the eateries (Dimensions of Public Health. 2014). The administration of Mamak has reacted with the agenda and the results are as per the following. It has been discovered that, the sanitation issues are kept up by Mamak (Jin and Lee 2014). They have consented to treat and procedure the food things cleanly. The dairy items, crude meats and fish, new leafy foods are taken exceptional consideration of. New and handled food things are kept independently to dodge cross defilement. The st orerooms, that is, coolers and fridges are cleaned and kept up at the necessary temperature. The kitchen surface is open and glass secured. Individuals can see the cooking region while holding up outside the entryway. Subsequently, Mamak invests additional energy to keep the cooking surface clean with antibacterial specialists and sorted out to keep up a decent impression with the clients. The workers need to wear clean clothing types alongside gloves, covers and head tops with the goal that clients have a positive sentiment about neatness (Mamak.com.au 2017). Aside from these, the other sterile practices incorporate cleaning the floor and table each time a client leaves, clean plates, bowls, spoons, forks, and clean water are kept up. Representatives are seen as keeping up the cleanliness guidelines, for example, utilizing handwash subsequent to utilizing toilets unfailingly, utilizing sanitizers in the food handling territory. They additionally don't smoke, drink or spit anyplace in the eatery. Clients for the most part give great surveys about the representatives and the food quality. Be that as it may, they don't spotless the toilets in any event four times each day, rather do it twice, which isn't adequate. Clients have protests in regards to this. The quantity of fire dousers is likewise not exactly the standard prerequisite. They do bother control just once every year, which is deficient (Fisherkidd 2012). Proposal: From the review agenda, it is discovered that Mamak has been keeping the guidelines and guidelines of the sanitation and wellbeing division in many territories. In this way, they face less grumblings from the clients just as from the wellbeing office. Be that as it may, there are not many regions where they need upgrades. Mamak ought to settle on bother control at any rate threefold every year, rather than once per year. The security measures ought to be expanded as it has an open kitchen and there is just one fire quencher. It ought to introduce more fire quencher inside the eatery if there should be an occurrence of any crises. Clients regularly gripe about messy toilets. Mamak should focus on that and they should clean it at any rate four times each day and more whenever required. End: It tends to be said from the review agenda that, Mamak is cautious about the food quality and security guidelines. They keep an ordinary beware of the neatness of the food preparing territory. They keep up the nature of the crude food materials according to the standard of the wellbeing office, in this way, there has been no bad things to say about their food quality. Mamak invests additional energy on the cleanliness part of the workers just as the clients. This is significant for any café business. Hence, it very well may be said that review agenda is a viable and less difficult approach to see whether a café is keeping up the guidelines and guidelines of the wellbeing and sanitation office. A straightforward agenda helps in evaluating the acts of the eatery, which spares the hour of both the café the board and the inspector. References: Efreshglobal.com., 2016. Agenda for Routine Inspection (Catering/Food Service Establishment) (first ed.). Efreshglobal.com. Recovered from https://efreshglobal.com/eFresh/Headers/pictures/pdf/fssi/FSSAI/inspection%20checklist%20for%20caterers.pdf Measurements of Public Health., 2014. Sanitation and Logo dissemination in inns, cafés of Highways!!. Measurements of Public Health. Recovered from https://publichealthinnepal.blogspot.in/2014/12/are-you-going-to-lodgings of-highways.html Mamak.com.au., 2017. Mamak. Mamak.com.au. Recovered 15 May 2017, from https://mamak.com.au/ Fisherkidd, 2012. Test Food Safety Audit Checklist 2012 Version 1. Recovered 15 May 2017, from https://mymission.lamission.edu/userdata/cantreef/docs/Food%20Safety%20Inspection%20Checklist-1.pdf Jin, G.Z. what's more, Lee, J., 2014. Review innovation, location, and consistence: proof from Florida café inspections.The RAND Journal of Economics,45(4), pp.885-917.

Australia :: essays research papers

Australia Australia is an island landmass and is found southeast of Asia . Australia is the littlest landmass on the planet . Australia is comprised of six states . The atmosphere in Australia differs enormously : a hot season , wet season with downpours falling predominantly in February and March. During which north western has warm and dry season. Australians mineral assets are eminently bauxite, coal , gold, iron , metal, and oil. The most well known and local warm blooded animals in Australia are marsupials . The most popular marsupials in Australia is a kangaroo which incorporate fifty species. In Australia forty-three percent of surface comprises of desert and sandy fields. The greater part of the number of inhabitants in Australia is of European plunge. Before the world war II the populace was totally of British root, however from that point forward in excess of 2,000,000 Europeans from the mainland have moved to Australia . English is the official language of Australia. The complete po pulace of Australia is 17, 827, 204. The capital of Australia is Sidney . The Religion of Australia is largergerly Protestants , 26 percent of Australians are Catholics , and there are littler like East Orthodox, Muslim , Buddhist , and Jewish populace . The training starts at six years old and as far as possible is to sixteen . Australia has in excess of ten thousand essential and optional schools. In the mid 1990s Australian had thirty-nine colleges . The lifestyle in Australia mirrors the legacy of British pioneers . Australia has many fascinating destinations like sea shores, mountains, deserts , historical centers, workmanship , music , Film and numerous different locales . The most established music of Australia is Aborigines. That music assumes accentual job in both social and hallowed life. During get-togethers called corroborees , singing and moving give the significant type of diversion. Australia is an extraordinary maker of essential items . The significant exporter are wheat ,meat , dairy items and fleece . Australia typically delivers twenty-five percent of world's yearly fleece. Mining turned into the main factor of mining in Australia . The region keeps on being reliant on domesticated animals raising and harvest cultivating. Assembling started after world war II . Most assembling offices are at Sidney. The creation is for the most part iron, steel ,aircraft's, development gear ,manufactured filaments , electronic hardware , power links , and oil .Sydney was established by CaptainArthur Philip in 1787.

IELTS Task 2 Education Essay Samples

IELTS Task 2 Education Essay SamplesAfter the first place IELTS test, students are now ready to move on to the second level of the course. The second and third levels of the course will be tough, but IELTS test will not be an issue. In this article, you will see some of the best task 2 education essay samples for you to follow.The ideal essay sample will be one that will not only help you get through the course but will also let you see some of the tricks and tips of the trade. It would be a great help if you could pick up one of these sample essays. These sample essays are usually written by the student himself and hence it would be easier for you to understand them. It will also allow you to see what you are able to do in order to succeed in this challenging curriculum.The first thing you will want to see is that these test studies are brief and simple. Most people find it hard to sit down and start writing a book report and expecting it to be easy and light-hearted. They want thei r work to be as efficient as possible. It's true that you need to keep the subject serious in your writing and if you have time, you may want to add a couple of humorous lines in there.Also remember that these test papers are not meant to be perfect and yet they should be interesting. This is why they have been written short and simple. A quick way to tell if you've done a good job is if the reader leaves the paper with more questions than answers. Also keep in mind that they are not written in this format to be put up on the exam room wall.Remember, you will not get a chance to study in the room or study your test on your computer. It will be in person and only when you pass the test will you know if you have passed. So do not let your anxiety get the better of you. You need to be confident and patient. You will know when you have passed when you get an answer back.One last note about the IELTS test, before you study any of the IELTS test, you should sit down and discuss with your parents what the homework would be. The best thing to do in this case is to go and visit a buddy or relative who can help you in any way possible. They will be able to give you the answer to any question that you have.So I hope that you have enjoyed reading about some of the best IELTS test samples. You now have a good idea of what you can expect when you take the test. Good luck!

Embryonic Research A Battle of Fallacies Essay - 1431 Words

Many women are eager to become a mother, but infertility prevents some women from satisfying this need. To counter this widespread problem, we develop reproductive choices. One of the most important choices is in vitro fertilization. Even though this method significantly increases pregnancy rate in infertile women, it comes with the problem. Underlying in vitro fertilization is research on living human embryos. We need to research on countless living embryos in order to develop clinical in vitro fertilization. This stirs public attention on its morality. Society asks: Are we killing thousands of human life while we are developing method to give birth to other ones? This question is crucial because it is asking very foundation of our†¦show more content†¦He emphasizes the important of embryos’ life and right to develop to be a mature human. First logical fallacy found in Kass’s essay is inappropriate generalization with the lacking of evidence. Kass supports his statement that life begins at fertilization by asserting, â€Å"Any honest biologist must be impressed by these facts, and must be inclined, at least on first glance, to the view that a human life begins at fertilization† (101). In this sentence, he claims that any honest biologist must agree with him. There is no evidence, or at least, reason provided to support this claim. Apart from inappropriate generalization, Kass also frames his readers’ perspective by using several accusatory words and erroneous analogy to portray embryonic research in devilish way. He describes embryonic research as â€Å"destruction of fetal life† (103), â€Å"destruction of blastocyst† (104), and â€Å"manipulative experiments involving such embryos† (104). Moreover, Kass analogizes the research method with cannibalism. He writes, â€Å"We would, I suppose, recoil even from the thought, let alone the practice†¦of eating such embryos†¦Ã¢â‚¬Ëœhuman caviar’ † (102). He adds that â€Å"human blastocyst would be protected by our taboo against cannibalism† (102). Then Kass concludes that human embryo is not a mere meat and it should be protected from invasive research. In this human caviar analogy, however, Kass omits a crucialShow MoreRelatedEmbryonic Research1080 Words   |  5 Pagesreproductive choices, we need to rese arch on living human embryo. Because its procedures terminate the life of embryo, embryonic research stirs up public attention on its morality. Society questions if these methods are morally right. Do they violate the meaning of personhood and life? Do we kill a human when we research the embryos? These questions are asking our foundation of morality. We must be cautious and avoid any logical fallacies when we answer them. Using logical fallacies to discuss these profoundRead MoreEssay on Ethical Theories of Embryonic Stem Cells1771 Words   |  8 PagesResearching the future potential of embryonic stem cells is the new hot topic debate in ethics. The moral objections from two opposing sides clash in a political and ethical battle of who is correct. Each faction tries to define the classification of what deserves unalienable human rights. Likewise, determining what is classified as human behavior such as sentiment, interests and pain has been the ground on which pro-stem cell rese arch stand. Since these embryos share only genetic similarities andRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 Pagesthink you will find the following classification of cases by subject matter to be helpful. I thank those of you who made this and other suggestions. Classification of Cases by Major Marketing Topics Topics Most Relevant Cases Marketing Research and Consumer Analysis Coca-Cola, Disney, McDonald’s, Google, Starbucks Product Starbucks, Nike, Coke/Pepsi, McDonald’s, Maytag, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, Newell Rubbermaid, DaimlerChrysler, Kmart/Sears, Harley-Davidson, Boeing/Airbus, MerckRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesalternatives to narrowly conceived interpretations, and offer quite an original take on the most extensively covered conflicts in human history and the decades of unprecedented global violence they framed. Morrow’s contribution here, as in his recent research and scholarship as a 6 †¢ INTRODUCTION whole, treats the two wars and their prehistory and aftermaths as genuinely global phenomena, not as conflicts among the great powers of Europe, the United States, and Japan, which has been theRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesmembership of learned societies, and scientific publications, is doubling every 15 years. The money spent on applied research is doubling every 7 years, and so also is the demand for electronics and aviation. If all these processes were to continue unchecked . . . within about 100 years every one of us would be a scientist, the entire national output would be absorbed in research, and we should be spending most of our lives airborne at 40 000 feet. â€Å" . . . world population, and also the available

Eternal Reward And Consequences Beyond Residency Essay

There will be eternal reward and consequences beyond residency in heaven. The judgment time is called the Bema Seat of Christ or judgment seat of Christ. That day of reckoning is described in the following three passages: 1 Corinthians 3:12-15, 2 Corinthians 5:10, and Romans 14:10-12. These passages include a reckoning of more than just financial issues. The above truth is a sobering fact of Scripture. If Millennials were to internalize these values, it would create a sense of careful calculations in all matters of life. After determining that God owns all things and that Christians are accountable to God, it is important to clarify how the word steward is used in the Bible. In biblical times a steward was a trusted person given responsibility for someone else’s possessions which may include care for livestock, immediate family members, or servants. , A steward’s duty was to manage on behalf of the master with the purpose to increase the master’s resources or influence. Finally, it implied some form of judgment or reckoning to reward the steward if he was faithful in the management of the entrusted resources. â€Å"Often, stewardship is thought of only in terms of finances, but the Bible teaches that stewardship is a far greater concept, involving how we respond with all of our life.† For the purposes of this dissertation topic, the Project Director acknowledges stewardship includes more than finances but will focus predominantly on financial stewardship. If the project Show MoreRelatedThe Great Divorce and The Divine Comedy3095 Words   |  13 Pageschoice of the individual soul, while Dante shows the results of one’s choices. Perhaps, this is why Lewis does not focus on hell extensively, while Dante does. Dante explores the reasoning behind sins, focusing on the punishments, the penance and rewards of riding oneself of the seven deadly sins and the distortions of love that lead to those sins. Dante represents how sins are sorted into hierarchies of punishment and penance, namely appetites, seen as less damning, and distortions of love, whichRead More8 stages of social development6628 Words   |  27 Pagescausing a shift toward the opposite pole. Me decades become us epochs as we constantly spiral up, or spiral down in response to life conditions. Some social stages stress diversity generators that reward individual initiatives and value human rights. Other social stages impose conformity regulators and reward cooperative, collective act ions. Societies will zigzag between these two poles, thus embracing different models at each tilt. Once a new social stage appears in a culture, it will spread its instructionalRead MoreCommercial Liens - a Potent Weapon Essay32374 Words   |  130 Pagespublisher guarantee that using this information will result in success or protect the reader from harm. The reader must accept that risk, and thoroughly study the law before using any of this material. Readers must take full responsibility for the consequences of any actions taken based on the contents of this manual. For most readers, you may well be best off reading this as a sort of adventure novel. You can learn of some of the actual documents and procedures being used by many freedom fightersRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesdecades of agrarian and industrial depression from the late 1860s to the 1890s, as well as the social tensions and political rivalries that generated and were in turn fed by imperialist expansionism, one cannot begin to comprehend the causes and consequences of the Great War that began in 1914. That conflict determined the contours of the twentieth century in myriad ways. On the one hand, the war set in motion transformative processes that were clearly major departures from those that defined the

Key Reason to Hold the Inventory

Question: Identify key reasons that organizations may need to hold inventories. What factors may lead an organization to change the level of inventories that it holds? How could such a decision affect the other elements of working capital? Answer: Key reason to hold the inventory One of the major reasons for organization to hold the inventory is to manage and control the increase and decrease of demand and supply within the changing market environment. The growing and demand of product makes the company to hold the inventory in order to increase the price of the product to gain the maximum benefit out of it (Arthur et al. 2010). Apart from that, organization also holds the inventory in order to lower purchase for future. This helps the organization helps to gain the price benefit when the price of raw materials is higher at peak season. Another major benefit is to take advantages of economies scale which is very much helpful for the organization in the long run. On the other hand, holding inventory creates higher sales during the seasonal products offerings (Berger et al. 2007). For instance, during year 1994, Dell computer faces losses because of demand of products was decline because of the too much of stock push which ultimately results into write off the inventory. Moreover, inventory helps the manufacturing company to reduce the uncertainty and help to availability of products and services in the market e.g. FMCG and grocery items (Campbell and Shiller, 2008). However, most of the organisation or rather industry holds the inventory to increase the price of their products. Some of the major company that holds the inventory to increase the price of the products are cement and oil companies has formed cartels to hold the supplies to create higher price. Factors lead to change the level of inventory Changing demand: With the changing market trend and demand keeps the manufacturer to hold the inventory which helps them to manage the variation in demand. Manufacturing organization keeps changing its plan as per the increase in decrease of demand and sales (Dechow, 2008). Holding raw materials helps the company to always be ready to cope with changes in demand in near future. Most of the organizations estimate its demand cost of products and accordingly hold the inventory in order to manage the higher demand of the products (Finger, 2008). Price: Other major factors that influences the companies to hold their inventory is price. Most of the companies hold their inventory to increase the price fluctuation within the existing market. Some of the major companies who are form cartel to increase the price are oil and gas companies (Hashemi, 2008). Apart from that, some of the manufacturing companies estimate the increase in the price of raw materials lead to change in future makes them purchase more and hold the inventory to reduce their cost of production in near future. Apart from that, it also helps the organization to reduce the cost of transformation which is rising with every year (Khairurizka, 2009). Availability of products: Form most of the FMCG companies like Wal-Mart, Tesco and Coles holing inventory to cater the rising demand of the products. Company hold or rather store most of inventory to take advantages of product availability in the market incomer to other competitors (Lewellen, 2009). Apart from that, it also helps the companies to gain the seasonal discount and off season price for the consumers which help these retail companies to gain the large customer base. Inventory decision making affects the working capital Holding inventory affect the working capital of the company in many ways it affects the short term receivables, cash bank balance and accounts receivables and accounts payables. Working capital management helps the company to smooth running of their operations (Balakrishnan and Sivaramakrishnan, 2008). Holding the inventory may increase the company accounts payables or increase the cost of inventory holding which may lead to difficulty in managing the operations. If the accounts payables is affected due to higher inventory holding cause the company huge shortage of cash for managing their short term obligations (Banker and Chen, 2006). This will also impact in their working capital cycle of the company which would affect the company cash flow statement. Holding large inventory needs lots of cash spending which may affect the supply chain of the company (Khairurizka, 2009). Short term loan will be required to gain the smooth running of existing operation which will creates huge problem for the company because company has to pay interest on loan. Most of the MNC like Tesco and Asda keep their inventory intact which why their current ratio are poor. For manufacturing the storing of the large inventory or holding inventory is to create the demand of the products for seasonal sales which again helps the company to increase their sales. Working capital cycle is very much affected by the inventory management because it can create imbalance between the trade receivable and trade payables. Reference List Journals Arthur, N., Cheng, M. and Czernkowski, R. (2010) "Cash flow disaggregation and the prediction of future earnings". Accounting Finance, 50, pp. 130. Berger, P., Ofek, E. and Swary, I. (2007) "Investor valuation of the abandonment option", Journal of Financial Economics, 42, pp. 257287 Campbell, J. and Shiller, R. (2008) The dividend-price ratio and expectations of future dividends and discount factors. Review of Financial Studies 1, 195228. Dechow, P.M. (2008) "Accounting Earning and Cash Flows as Measures of Firm Performance", Journal of Accounting and Economics, 18, pp. 3-42. Finger, C. A. (2008) "The Ability of Earnings to Predict Future Earnings and Cash Flow", Journal of Accounting Research 32, pp. 210-223. Hashemi, S. A. (2008) Analyze the relationship between operating cash flows and accruals, operating cash flow forecasting model, according and Auditing Review, 38, 1-24. Khairurizka, R. (2009) The effect of financial ratios, firm size, and cash flow from operating activities in the interim report to the stock return,) Chinese Business Review, 8(6) , 44-53. Lewellen, J. (2009) Predicting returns with financial ratios, Journal of Financial Economics, 74, 209-235 Balakrishnan, R. and Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2008) A critical overview of the use of fullcost data for planning and pricing. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 14: 3-31 Banker, R., and Chen, L. (2006) Predicting Earnings Using a Model Based on Cost Variability and Cost Stickiness. The Accounting Review 81, 285307.

Science Alchemy Alchemy, Ancient Art Practiced Especially In The Middl

Science Alchemy Alchemy, ancient art practiced especially in the Middle Ages, devoted chiefly to discovering a substance that would transmute the more common metals into gold or silver and to finding a means of indefinitely prolonging human life. Although its purposes and techniques were dubious and often illusory, alchemy was in many ways the predecessor of modern science, especially the science of chemistry. The birthplace of alchemy was ancient Egypt, where, in Alexandria, it began to flourish in the Hellenistic period; simultaneously, a school of alchemy was developing in China. The writings of some of the early Greek philosophers might be considered to contain the first chemical theories; and the theory advanced in the 5th century BC by Empedocles?that all things are composed of air, earth, fire, and water?was influential in alchemy. The Roman emperor Caligula is said to have instituted experiments for producing gold from orpiment, a sulfide of arsenic, and the emperor Diocletia n is said to have ordered all Egyptian works concerning the chemistry of gold and silver to be burned in order to stop such experiments. Zosimus the Theban (about AD 250-300) discovered that sulfuric acid is a solvent of metals, and he liberated oxygen from the red oxide of mercury. The fundamental concept of alchemy stemmed from the Aristotelian doctrine that all things tend to reach perfection. Because other metals were thought to be less "perfect" than gold, it was reasonable to assume that nature formed gold out of other metals deep within the earth and that with sufficient skill and diligence an artisan could duplicate this process in the workshop. Efforts toward this goal were empirical and practical at first, but by the 4th century AD, astrology, magic, and ritual had begun to gain prominence. A school of pharmacy flourished in Arabia during the caliphates of the Abbasids from 750 to 1258. The earliest known work of this school is the Summa Perfectionis (Summit of Perfection) , attributed to the Arabian scientist and philosopher Geber; the work is consequently the oldest book on chemistry proper in the world and is a collection of all that was then known and believed. The Arabian alchemists worked with gold and mercury, arsenic and sulfur, and salts and acids, and they became familiar with a wide range of what are now called chemical reagents. They believed that metals are compound bodies, made up of mercury and sulfur in different proportions. Their scientific creed was the potentiality of transmutation, and their methods were mostly blind gropings; yet, in this way, they found many new substances and invented many useful processes. >From the Arabs, alchemy generally found its way through Spain into Europe. The earliest authentic works extant on European alchemy are those of the English monk Roger Bacon and the German philosopher Albertus Magnus; both believed in the possibility of transmuting inferior metals into gold. This idea excited the imagination , and later the avarice, of many persons during the Middle Ages. They believed gold to be the perfect metal and that baser metals were more imperfect than gold. Thus, they sought to fabricate or discover a substance, the so-called philosopher's stone, so much more perfect than gold that it could be used to bring the baser metals up to the perfection of gold. Roger Bacon believed that gold dissolved in aqua regia was the elixir of life. Albertus Magnus had a great mastery of the practical chemistry of his time. The Italian Scholastic philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas, the Catalan churchman Raymond Lully, and the Benedictine monk Basil Valentine (flourished 15th century) also did much to further the progress of chemistry, although along alchemical lines, in discovering the uses of antimony, the manufacture of amalgams, and the isolation of spirits of wine, or ethyl alcohol. Important compilations of recipes and techniques in this period include The Pirotechnia (1540; trans. 1943), by the Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio; Concerning Metals (1556; trans. 1912), by the German mineralogist Georgius Agricola; and Alchemia (1597), by Andreas Libavius, a German naturalist and chemist. Most famous of all was the 16th-century Swiss alchemist Philippus Paracelsus. Paracelsus held that the elements of compound bodies were salt, sulfur, and mercury, representing, respectively, earth, air, and water; fire he regarded as imponderable, Science Alchemy Alchemy, Ancient Art Practiced Especially In The Middl Science Alchemy Alchemy, ancient art practiced especially in the Middle Ages, devoted chiefly to discovering a substance that would transmute the more common metals into gold or silver and to finding a means of indefinitely prolonging human life. Although its purposes and techniques were dubious and often illusory, alchemy was in many ways the predecessor of modern science, especially the science of chemistry. The birthplace of alchemy was ancient Egypt, where, in Alexandria, it began to flourish in the Hellenistic period; simultaneously, a school of alchemy was developing in China. The writings of some of the early Greek philosophers might be considered to contain the first chemical theories; and the theory advanced in the 5th century BC by Empedocles?that all things are composed of air, earth, fire, and water?was influential in alchemy. The Roman emperor Caligula is said to have instituted experiments for producing gold from orpiment, a sulfide of arsenic, and the emperor Diocletia n is said to have ordered all Egyptian works concerning the chemistry of gold and silver to be burned in order to stop such experiments. Zosimus the Theban (about AD 250-300) discovered that sulfuric acid is a solvent of metals, and he liberated oxygen from the red oxide of mercury. The fundamental concept of alchemy stemmed from the Aristotelian doctrine that all things tend to reach perfection. Because other metals were thought to be less "perfect" than gold, it was reasonable to assume that nature formed gold out of other metals deep within the earth and that with sufficient skill and diligence an artisan could duplicate this process in the workshop. Efforts toward this goal were empirical and practical at first, but by the 4th century AD, astrology, magic, and ritual had begun to gain prominence. A school of pharmacy flourished in Arabia during the caliphates of the Abbasids from 750 to 1258. The earliest known work of this school is the Summa Perfectionis (Summit of Perfection) , attributed to the Arabian scientist and philosopher Geber; the work is consequently the oldest book on chemistry proper in the world and is a collection of all that was then known and believed. The Arabian alchemists worked with gold and mercury, arsenic and sulfur, and salts and acids, and they became familiar with a wide range of what are now called chemical reagents. They believed that metals are compound bodies, made up of mercury and sulfur in different proportions. Their scientific creed was the potentiality of transmutation, and their methods were mostly blind gropings; yet, in this way, they found many new substances and invented many useful processes. >From the Arabs, alchemy generally found its way through Spain into Europe. The earliest authentic works extant on European alchemy are those of the English monk Roger Bacon and the German philosopher Albertus Magnus; both believed in the possibility of transmuting inferior metals into gold. This idea excited the imagination , and later the avarice, of many persons during the Middle Ages. They believed gold to be the perfect metal and that baser metals were more imperfect than gold. Thus, they sought to fabricate or discover a substance, the so-called philosopher's stone, so much more perfect than gold that it could be used to bring the baser metals up to the perfection of gold. Roger Bacon believed that gold dissolved in aqua regia was the elixir of life. Albertus Magnus had a great mastery of the practical chemistry of his time. The Italian Scholastic philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas, the Catalan churchman Raymond Lully, and the Benedictine monk Basil Valentine (flourished 15th century) also did much to further the progress of chemistry, although along alchemical lines, in discovering the uses of antimony, the manufacture of amalgams, and the isolation of spirits of wine, or ethyl alcohol. Important compilations of recipes and techniques in this period include The Pirotechnia (1540; trans. 1943), by the Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio; Concerning Metals (1556; trans. 1912), by the German mineralogist Georgius Agricola; and Alchemia (1597), by Andreas Libavius, a German naturalist and chemist. Most famous of all was the 16th-century Swiss alchemist Philippus Paracelsus. Paracelsus held that the elements of compound bodies were salt, sulfur, and mercury, representing, respectively, earth, air, and water; fire he regarded as imponderable,